Berger, John. About Looking. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980).
Goodman, Nelson. Languages of Art: An Approach to the Theory of Symbols. (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 1976).
Gross, Larry. "Sol Worth and the Study of Visual Communications," Studies in Visual Communication , 6:3 (1980): 2-19.
Gross, Larry, Sol Worth: Studying Visual Communication. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981).
Hochberg, Julian. "Some of the Things That Pictures Are." In Calvin Nodine and Dennis Fisher (Eds.) Views of Pictorial Representation: Making, Perceiving and Interpreting. (New York: Praeger, 1979.
Hudak, G. "On the Limits of Visual Communication: A Case Study." Journal of Visual/Verbal Languaging. 7:1 (1987): 28-51.
Ingle, David J., M. A. Goodale, and R. J. W. Mansfield. (Eds.) Analysis of Visual Behavior. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1982).
Ivins, William H. Prints and Visual Communication. (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1953).
Moriarty, Sandra. "The Function of Visuals in Mass Communication." In Roberts A. Braden, Darrel G. Beauchamp, and LaVerne W. Miller (Eds.) Visible & Viable. IVLA 1986 Conference Proceedings, 1987.
Pettersson, Rune. "Image Functions." Visual Literacy Review. 20 (February, 1991): 2-3.
II A. Images, Content and Meaning
Akert, Robert U. Photoanalysis: How to Interpret the Hidden Psychological Meaning of Personal Photos. (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1973).
Craven, George M. Object and Image. (Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice Hall, 1975.)
Freedberg, David. The Power of Images: Studies in the History and Theory of Responses. (Chicago" The University of Chicago Press, 1989)
Gombrich, E.H. "The Visual Image." Scientific American. 227 (September, 1972): 82-96.
Knowlton, John. "On the Definition of A 'Picture'." AV Communication Review. 14 (1966): 157-183.
Kolors, P.A. and W. E. Smythe. "Images, Symbols, and Skills." Canadian Journal of Psychology. 33 (1979): 158-184.
McMahon, C. E. "Images as Motives and Motivators: A Historical Perspective." American Journal of Psychology. 86 (1973): 465-490.
Pettersson, Rune. "Image Format." Visual Literacy Newsletter 17 (1988): 5.
Pettersson, Rune. "Image Formats: The Multidimensional Representation of Reality." EP Journal, (September, 1988): 3-7.
Pettersson, Rune. "interpretation of Image Content." Educational Communications Technology Journal 36:1 (1988): 45-55.
Reed, Stephen K. "Structural Descriptions and the Limitation of Visual Images." Memory and Cognition 2 (April, 1974): 329-336.
Sekula, Allan. "On the Invention of Photographic Meaning." Art Forum. 13 (January 1975): 36-45.
Stonehill, Brian. "The Debate Over 'Ocularcentrism'." Journal of Communication. 45:1 (Winter 1995): 147-152.
II A1. Representation and Realism
Allen, Richard. "Representation, Illusion, and the Cinema." The Cinema Journal. 32 (winter, 1993): 21-48.
Arrel, Douglas. "What Goodman Should Have Said about Representation." The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism. 46 (Fall, 1987): 41-49. Discussion 46 (Summer, 1988): 509-511.
Batchen, Geoffrey. "For an Impossible Realism: An Interview with Victor Burgin." Afterimage. 16 (February 1989): 4-9.
Brand, Myles and Robert M. Harnish (Eds.) The Representation of Knowledge and Belief. (Phoenix, AZ: The University of Arizona Press, 1986).
Brook, Donald. "Painting, Photography, and Representation." Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism. 42 (Winter 1983): 171-180.
Dyer, Richard. The Matter of Images: Essays on Representation (New York: Routledge, 1992).
Egan, D. E. and D. D. Grimes-Ferrow. "Differences in Mental Representations Spontaneously Adopted for Reasons." Memory and Cognition. 10 (1982): 297-307.
Eisner, Elliot W. "On the Relationship of Conception to Representation." Art Education. 36:2 (March 1983): 53.
Erdman, Barbara. "See You in the Funnies! An Analysis of Representation." Journal of Visual Literacy. 13:2 (Autumn, 1993): 51-60.
Gibson, J. J. Reasons for Realism: Selected Essays of James J. Gibson. In E. Reed and R. Jones, (Eds.) (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1982).
Goodrich, R. A. "Goodman on Representation and Resemblance." The British Journal of Aesthetics. 28 (Winter, 1988): 48-58.
Grigg, Robert. "Relativism and Pictorial Realism." The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism. 42 (Summer, 1984): 397-408.
Korsmeyer, Carolyn. "Pictorial Assertion." The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism. 43 (spring, 1985): 257-265.
McDonnell, Neil. "Are Pictures Unavoidably Specific?" Synthese 57 (1983): 83-98.
Mitchell, W. J. Thomas. "Realism, Irrealism, and Ideology: A Critique of Nelson Goodman." The Journal of Aesthetic Education. 25 (Spring, 1991): 23-35.
Perkins, D. N. "Pictures and the Real Thing." In P. A. Kolers, M. R. Wrolstad, and H. Bouma (Eds.) Processing Visible Language: Vol. 2 (New York: Plenum Press, 1980): 259-278.
Scruton, Roger. "Photography and Representation." Critical Inquiry 7 (Spring 1981): 577-603.
Snodgrass, J. G. "Concepts and Their Surface Representations." Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior. 23 (1984): 3-22.
Snyder, Joel and Neil W. Allen. "Photography, Vision, and Representation." Critical Inquiry 2 (Autumn 1975): 143-169.
Tagg, John. "The Proof of the Picture." Afterimage. 15 (January, 1988): 11-13.
Wartofsky, Marx W. "Rules and Representation: The Virtues of Constancy and Fidelity Put in Perspective." Erkenntniss. 2 (1978): 17-36.
Watzlawich, Paul. How Real is Real? (New York: Vintage Books, 1977).
Weiss, Audrey, Dorothy Mirich and Barbara Wilson. "Prior Exposure to Creatures From a Horror Film: Live Versus Photographic Representations." Communication Research. (September 1993): 41-66.
Zabala, Horacio. "The Image of Duplication: Theoretical Perspective Behind Artistic Production and Viewers' Notions of Reality and Appearance." Leonardo. 25:1 (1992): 47-50.
II A2. Pictorial Representation
Caroll, J. M., J. C. Thomas, and A. Malhotra. "Presentation and Representation in Design Problem-Solving." British Journal of Psychology. 71 (1980): 143-153.
Gombrich, E. H. "Representation and Misrepresentation." Critical Inquiry. 11 (1984): 195-201.
Gombrich, E. H. "Mirror and Map: Theories of Pictorial Representation." Philosophical Transactions of The Royal Society. (London, Royal Society, 1975): 119-149.
Gombrich, E. H., Julian Hochberg, and M. Black (Eds.) Art, Perception and Reality. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1972).
Harris, Jonathan. "The Burden of Representation: Essays on Photographies and Histories." Art History. 12 (June, 1989): 247-256.
Hochberg, Julian. "The Representation of Things and People: In E. H. Gombrich, Julian Hochberg, and M. Black (Eds.) Art, Perception and Reality. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1972).
Huckle, Nicholas. "On Representation and Essence: Barthes and Heidegger." The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism. 43 (Spring, 1985): 275-280.
Hurt, J.A. "Assessing Functional Effectiveness of Pictorial Representations Used in Text." Educational communication Technology. 35:2 (1987): 85-94.
Kelter, S., H. Grotzbach, R. Frieheit, B. Hohle, S. Wutzig and E. Diesch. "Object Identification: The Mental Representation of Physical and Conceptual Attributes." Memory and Cognition. 12 (1984): 123-133.
Neander, Karen. "Pictorial Representation: A Matter of Resemblance." The British Journal of Aesthetics. 27 (Summer, 1987): 213-226.
Nichols, Bill. "The Analysis of Representational Images." In Corner, John and Jeremy Hawthorn (Eds.) Communication Studies: An Introductory Reader. 3rd ed. (London: Edward Arnold, 1989).
Peetz, Dieter. "Some Current Philosophical Theories of Pictorial Representation." The British Journal of Aesthetics. 27 (Summer, 1987): 227-237. Discussion. 28 (Summer, 1988): 278-80.
Roupas, T.G. "Information and Pictorial Representation." In D. Perkins and B. Leondar (Eds.) The Arts and Cognition. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977).
Savedoff, Barbara E. "Transforming Images: Photographs of Representations." The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism. 50 (Spring 1992): 93-106.
Tagg, John. The Burden of Representation: Essays on Photographies and Histories. (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1988).
Todd, Jennifer. "The Roots of Pictorial Reference." Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 39 (1980): 47-58.
Ujlaki, Gabriella. "The Logic of Representation." The British Journal of Aesthetics. 33 (April, 1993): 121-131.
Warburton, Nigel. "Varieties of Photographic Representation: Documentary, Pictorial, and Quasi-Documentary. History of Photography. 15 (Autumn, 1991): 203-210.
Warburton, Nigel. "Photographic Communication." British Journal of Aesthetics 28 (Spring 1988): 173-181.
Wartofsky, Marx W. "Cameras Can't See: Representation, Photography and Human Vision." Afterimage. 7:9 (April, 1980): 8-9.
Wartofsky, Marx W. "Picturing and Representing." In Calvin Nodine and Dennis Fisher. (Eds.) Perception and Pictorial Representation. (New York: Praeger, 1979).
II A3. Visual Illusions / Ambiguities
Carraker, R. G. and J. B. Thurston. Optical Illusions and the Visual Arts. (New York: Van Nostrand-Reinhold, 1966).
Coren, S. and J. S. Girgus. "Principles of Perceptual Organization and Spatial Distortion: The Gestalt Illusions." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 7 (1980): 404-412.
Coren, S. and J. S. Girgus. Seeing is Deceiving: The Psychology of Visual Illusions. (Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum, 1978).
Gregory, R. L. "Visual Illusions." Scientific American. (November, 1968).
Halpern, D. F. "The Determinants of Illusory-contour Perception." Perception. 10 (1981): 199-214.
Luckiesh, M. Visual Illusions. (New York: Dover, 1965).
Parks, T. E. "Illusory Figures: A (Mostly) A Theoretical Review." Psychological Bulletin. 95 (1984): 282-300.
Reardon, M. E. and T. E. Parks. "The Ponzo Illusion Without Suggested Depth." American Journal of Psychology. 96 (1983): 107-112.
Teuber, M.L. "Sources of Ambiguity in the Prints of Maurits C. Escher." Scientific American. (July, 1974).
Terouanne, E. "'Impossible Figures' and Interpretations of Polyhedral Figures." Journal of Mathematical Psychology. 27 (1983): 370-405.
Tolanksy, S. Optical Illusions. (Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press, 1964).
Kroll, N. E. A., E. M. Schepeler, and K. T. Anglin. "Bizarre Imagery: The Misremembered Mnemonic." Journal of Experimental Psychology: learning, Memory, and Cognition. 12 (1986): 42-53.
Marshall, P. H., K. Nau and C. K. Chandler. "A Functional Analysis of Common and Bizarre Visual Mediators." Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society. 15 (1980): 375-377.
McDaniel, M.A. and G. O. Einstein. "Bizarre Imagery as an Effective Memory Aid: The Importance of Distinctiveness." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 12 (1986): 54-65.
O'Brien, E. J. and C. R. Wolford. "Effect of Delay in Testing on Retention of Plausible versus Bizarre Mental Images." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 8 (1982): 148-152.
Webber, S. M. and P. H. Marshall. "Bizarreness Effects in Imagery as a Function of Processing Level and Delay." Journal of Mental Imagery. 2 (1978): 291-300.
II B. Mental Imagery / Visualization
Anderson, J. R. "Arguments Concerning Representatical Review. 85 (1978): 249-277.
Block, Ned. (Ed.) Imagery. (Cambridge MA: The MIT Press, 1981).
Bullock, D. and S. Severe. "Using Fantasy and Guided Visual Imagery." Academic Therapy. 16 (1982): 311-316.
Cartwright, Desmond S., Mary E. Marks, and John H. Durrett, Jr. "Definition and Measurement of Three Processes of Imagery Representation: Exploratory Studies of Verbally Stimulated Imagery." Multivariate Behavioral Research. 13:4 (1978): 449-473.
Clark, R.L. "Media, Mental Imagery, and Memory." Educational Communication and Technology Journal. 26 (4): 355-363.
Di Vesta, F. J., Ingersoll, G. and P. Sunshine. "A Factor Analysis of Imagery Tests." Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior. 10 (1971): 471-479.
Farah, M. J. "Psychophysical Evidence for a Shared Representation Medium for Mental Images and Percepts." Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 114 (1985): 91-103.
Finke, Ronald A. Principles of Mental Imagery. (Cambridge Mass: The MIT Press, 1989).
Finke, Ronald A. "Visual Functions of Mental Imagery." In K.R. Boff, L. Kaufman, and J. P. Thomas (Eds.) Handbook of Perception and Human Performance. (New York: Wiley, 1986).
Fleming, M. L. "The Picture in Your Mind." AV Communication Review. 25 (1977): 43-62.
Fodor, Jerry A. "Imagistic Representation in Imagery." In Ned Block (Ed.) Imagery. Cambridge: Mass, The MIT Press, 1981).
Glass, A. L., J. K. Eddy, and P. J. Schwanenflugel. "The Verification of High and Low Imagery Sentences." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory. 6 (1980): 692-704.
Gombrich, E. H. The Image and the Eye. (Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press, 1982.)
Gordon, R. "A Very Private World.: In Sheehan. P. W. (Ed.) The Function and Nature of Imagery. (New York: Academic Press, 1972): 63-80.
Holt, R. R. "Imagery: The Return of the Ostracized." American Psychologist. 19 (1964): 254-264.
Hortin, John A. "Imagery in Our Daily Lives." In R.A. Braden and A. D. Walker (Eds.). Seeing Ourselves: Visualization in a Social Context. (Blacksburg, VA: The International Visual Literacy Association, Inc., 1983).
Katz, Albert N. "What Does it Mean to be a High Imager?" In J.C. Yuille (Ed.) Imagery, Memory and Cognition. (Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum, 1983): 39-63.
Khatena, J. "Analogy Imagery and the Creative Imagination." Journal of Mental Imagery. 7 (1983): 127-134.
Kosslyn, Stephen M. Image and Brain: The Resolution of the Imagery Debate. (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1994).
Kosslyn, Stephen M. "Mental Imagery." In Daniel N. Osherson, Stephen M. Kosslyn, and John M. Hollerbach (Eds.) Visual Cognition and Action. Vol. 2 (Cambridge MA: The MIT Press, 1992): 73-97.
Kosslyn, Stephen M., C. Seger, J.R. Pani, and L. A. Hillger. "When Is Imagery Used in Everyday Life? A Dairy Study." Journal of Mental Imagery. 14 (1990): 131-152.
Kosslyn, Stephen. M. "Stalking the Mental Image." Psychology Today. 19 (1985):23-28.
Kosslyn, Stephen M., J. Brunn, K. R. Cave, and R. W. Wallach. "Individual Differences in Mental Imagery Ability: A Computational Analysis." Cognition 18 (1984): 195-243.
Kosslyn, Stephen M. Ghosts in the Mind's Machine: Creating and Using Images in the Brain. (New York: Norton, 1983).
Kosslyn, Stephen M., Steven Pinker, George E. Smith, Steven P. Shwartz. "On the Demystification of Mental Imagery." In Ned Block (Ed.) Imagery. Cambridge: Mass, The MIT Press, 1981).
Kosslyn, Stephen M. "The Medium and the Message in Mental Imagery." Psychological Review. 88:1 (1981): 46-66. Also in Ned Block (Ed.) Imagery. Cambridge: Mass, The MIT Press, 1981).
Kosslyn, Stephen M. Image and Mind. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980).
Kosslyn Stephen M. and P. Jolicoeur. "A Theory-Based Approach to the Study of Individual Differences in Mental Imagery." In R. E. Snow, P. A. Federico, and W. E. Montague (Eds.) Aptitude, Learning, and Instruction: Cognitive Process Analysis of Aptitude. Vol. 1 (Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum, 1980).
Kosslyn, Stephen M. and J. R. Pomerantz. "Imagery, Propositions, and the Form of Internal Representations." Cognitive Psychology. 9 (1977): 52-76.
McKellar, P. "The Investigation of Mental Images." In S. A. Barnet and A. McLaren (Eds.) Penguin Science Survey. (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1965).
Miller, Helen and John Burton. "Images and Imagery Theory." In Moore, David and Francis Dwyer, eds. Visual Literacy: A Spectrum of Visual Learning. Englewood Cliffs NJ: Educational Technology Publications, 1994, 65-84.
Morris, Peter E. and Peter J. Hampson. Imagery and Consciousness. (NY/London: Academic Press, 1983).
Neisser, Ulric. "Changing Conceptions of Imagery." In Peter W. Sheehan, (Ed.) The Function and Nature of Imagery. (New York: Academic Press, 1972): 233-251.
Paivio, A. and M. Cohen. "Eidetic Imagery and Cognitive Abilities." Journal of Mental Imagery. 3 (1979): 53-64.
Paivio, Allen. "Imagery as a Private Audiovisual Aid." Instructional Science. 9 (1980): 295-309.
Paivio, Allan. "Perceptual comparisons Through the Mind's Eye." Memory and Cognition. 3:6 (1975): 635-647.
Pinker, S. "Mental Imagery and the Third Dimension." Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 109 (1980): 354-371.
Pylyshyn, Zenon. "What the Mind's Eye Tells the Mind's Brain: A Critique of Mental Imagery." Psychological Bulletin 80 (July, 1973): 1-24.
Pylyshyn, Zenon. "The Imagery Debate: Analogue Media Versus Tacit Knowledge." Psychological Review. 88 (1981): 16-45.
Reed, S. K. "Structural Descriptions and the Limitations of Visual Images." Memory and Cognition 2 (1974): 329-336.
Richardson, A. Mental Imagery. (New York: Springer, 1969)
Samuels, M. and N. Samuels. Seeing With the Mind's Eye: The History, Techniques, and Uses of Visualization. (New York: Random House, 1975).
Sheehan, Peter W. (Ed.) The Function and Nature of Imagery. (New York: Academic Press, 1972).
Sheikh, Anees A. Imagery: Current Theory, Research, and Application. (New York, John Wiley & Sons,, 1983).
Shepard, Roger N. "The Mental Image." American Psychologist. 33 (1978): 125-137.
Shepard, Roger N. and Lynn A. Cooper. Mental Images and Their Transformations. (Cambridge Mass: The MIT Press, 1986).
Simon, H.A. "What Is Visual Imagery: An Information Processing Interpretation." In L. W. Gregg (Ed.). Cognition in Learning and Memory. (New York: Wiley, 1972).
Wicker, F. W. "Our Picture of Mental Imagery: Prospects for Research and Development." Educational Communication and Technology Journal. 26 (1978): 15-24.
Baddeley, A. D., S. Grant, E. Wight, and N. Thomson. "Imagery and Visual Working Memory." In P.M. A. Rabbitt and S. Dornic (Eds.) Attention and Performance. Vol. 5. (London: Academic Press, 1974).
Banks, W. P. "Assessing Relations Between Imagery and Perception." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 7 (1981): 844-847.
Brown, Polly, Janice M. Keenan, and George R. Potts. "The Self-Reference Effect with Imagery Encoding." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 51:5 (1986): 897-906.
Finke, Ronald A. "Levels of Equivalence in Imagery and Perception" Psychological Review. 87 (1980): 113-132.
Groninger, L. D. and L. K. Groninger. "Function of Images in the Encoding-Retrieval Process." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 8 (1982): 353-358.
Hilgard, E. R. "Imagery and Imagination in American Psychology." Journal of Mental Imagery. 5 (1981): 5-66.
Horowitz, Mardi J. Image Formation and Cognition. (New York, Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1978).
Lord, Charles G. "Schemas and Images as Memory Aids: Two Modes of Processing Social Information." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 38:2 (1980): 257-269.
MacInnis, Deborah J. and Linda L. Price. "The Role of Imagery in Information Processing: Review and Extensions." Journal of Consumer Research. 13 (March, 1987): 473-491.
Paivio, Allan. "Imagery Ability and Visual Perception of Verbal and Nonverbal Stimuli." Perception and Psychophysics. 10 (1971): 429-432.
Paivio, A. and J. de Linde. "Imagery, Memory, and the Brain." Canadian Journal of Psychology. 36 (1982): 243-272.
Richardson, J. T. E. Mental Imagery and Human Memory. (London: MacMillan Press, 1980).
Segal, S. J. and V. Fusella. "Influence of Imaged Pictures and Sounds on Detection of Visual and Auditory Signals." Journal of Experimental Psychology. 83 (1970): 458-464.
Wallace, B. "Apparent Equivalence Between Perception and Imagery in the Production of Various Visual Illusions." Memory and Cognition. 12 (1984: 156-162.
Winn, W. "Visual Information Processing: A Pragmatic Approach to the 'Imagery Question'." Educational Communication and Technology Journal. 28 (1980): 120-133.
Yuille, J.C. and M. G. Catchpole. "The Role of Imagery in Models of Cognition." Journal of Mental Imagery. 1 (1977): 171-180.
Bower, G. H. "Imagery as a Relational Organizer in Associative Learning." Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior. 1970 (9): 529-533.
Couch, Richard A. "Mental Imagery, Cognitive Style and Their Effects on Learning Different Levels of Learning Objectives." In Darrell G. Beauchamp, Judy C. Baca and Roberts A. Braden (Eds.) Investigating Visual Literacy. (Blacksburg VA: International Visual Literacy Assocation, 1990).
Ernest, C. H. "Imagery Ability and Cognition: A Critical Review." Journal of Mental Imagery. 1977 (1): 113-132.
Fleming, M. L. and D. Hutton. (Eds.) Mental Imagery and Learning. (Englewood Cliffs NJ: Educational Technology Publications, 1983).
McCarty, D. L. "Investigation of a Visual Imagery Mnemonic Device for Acquiring Face-Name Associations." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory. 6 (1980): 145-155.
Sheikh, Anees A. and Katherine S. Sheikh. Imagery in Education. (Farmingdale NY: Baywood Publishing, 1985).
Speidel, G. E. and M. E. Troy. "The Ebb and Flow of Mental Imagery In Education." In A. A. Sheikh and K. S. Sheikh. (Eds.). Imagery in Education. (Farmingdale NY: Baywood, 1985).
Winn, W. "Visualization in Learning and Instruction." Educational Communication and Technology Journal. 30 (1982): 3-25.
Dickel, M. J. and S. Slak. "Imagery Vividness and Memory for Verbal Material." Journal of Mental Imagery. 7 (1983): 121-126.
Rhodes, John Wiley. "Relationships Between Vividness of Mental Imagery and Creative Thinking." Journal of Creative Behavior. 15:2 (1981): 9-98.
Taylor, S. E. and S. C. Thompson. "Stalking the Elusive 'Vividness' Effect." Psychological Review. 89 (1982): 155-181.
II C. Philosophy: Epistemology
Denis, M. and M. Carfantan. "People's Knowledge about Images." Cognition. 20 (1985): 49-60.
Dretske, Fred. "Seeing, Believing, and Knowing." In Daniel N. Osherson, Stephen M. Kosslyn, and John M. Hollerbach (Eds.) Visual Cognition and Action. Vol. 2 (Cambridge MA: The MIT Press, 1992).
Dretske, Fred. Seeing and Knowing. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969).
Paivio, Allan. "On Exploring Visual Knowledge." In B. S. Randhawa and W. E. Coffman (Eds), Visual Learning, Thinking and communication. New York: Academic Press, 1978: 113-131.
Rancourt, R. "Epistemology: A Forgotten Factor in the Learning-Teaching Process." Journal of Visual/Verbal Languaging. 3:2 (1983): 29-44.
Spelke, Elizabeth S. "Origins of Visual Knowledge. In Daniel N. Osherson, Stephen M. Kosslyn, and John M. Hollerbach (Eds.) Visual Cognition and Action. Vol. 2 (Cambridge MA: The MIT Press, 1992): 99-128.
Arnheim, Rudolph. Visual Thinking. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974).
Arnheim, Rudolf. Review essay of Picasso's Guernica: The Labyrinth of Narrative and Vision (by Frank D. Russell). Studies in Visual Communication. 7:2 (Spring 1981): 84-88.
Curtiss, Deborah. "Visual Thinking: How Do We Define, Identify and Facilitate It?" In Judy Clark Baca and Roberts Braden (Eds.). Investigating Visual Literacy, (Blacksburg, VA: The International Visual Literacy Association, Inc. 1990).
Dake, Dennis. "Visual Thinking Skills for the Digital Age." In Darrell G. Beauchamp, Roberts A. Braden, Robert E. Griffin. (Eds.) Imagery and Visual Literacy. (Blacksburg, VA: The International Visual Literacy Association, Inc., 1995).
Dake, Dennis. "Visual Links: Discovery in Art and Science." In Roberts Braden, Judy Clark Baca, Darrell Beauchamp (Eds.) Art and Science. (Blacksburg, VA: The International Visual Literacy Association, Inc., 1993).
Hortin, John A. "Introspection and Visual Thinking for Instructional Technology." Educational Technology. 13:6 (1982).
McKim, Robert H. Experiences in Visual Thinking. (Monterey CA: Brooks/Cole, 1980).
McKim, Robert H. Thinking Visually. (Belmont CA: Wadsworth, 1980).
Osherson, Daniel N., Stephen M. Kosslyn, and John M. Hollerbach (Eds.) Visual Cognition and Action. Vol. 2 (Cambridge MA: The MIT Press, 1992).
Paivio, Allan. "Imagery and Synchronic Thinking." Canadian Psychological Review. 16 (1975): 147-163.
Randhawa, Bikkar S. and William E. Coffman (Eds.). Visual Learning, Thinking and Communication. (New York: Academic Press, 1978).
Renk, Jeffrey M., Robert C. Branch, Echeol Chang. "Visual Information Strategies in Mental Model Development." In Darrell G. Beauchamp, Roberts A. Braden, Robert E. Griffin. (Eds.) Imagery and Visual Literacy. Annual Conference Proceedings, 1995.
Wolf, H. Visual Thinking: Methods for Making Images Memorable. (New York: Rizzoli, 1988).
Couch, Richard, Edward J. Caropreso and Hellen Miller. "Making Meaning From Visuals: Creative Thinking and Interpretation of Visual Information." In Moore, David and Francis Dwyer, eds. Visual Literacy: A Spectrum of Visual Learning. (Englewood Cliffs NJ: Educational Technology Publications, 1994): 27-29.
Curtiss, Deborah. "From Iconic to Lingual: Interpreting Visual Statements." In Darrell G. Beauchamp, Roberts A. Braden, Robert E. Griffin. (Eds.) Imagery and Visual Literacy. Annual Conference Proceedings, 1995.
Curtiss, Deborah. "An Eclectic Approach to the Interpretation of Visual Statements." In Darrel G. Beauchamp, Roberts A. Braden, Judy Clark Baca (Eds.) Visual Literacy in the Digital Age. IVLA Conference Proceedings, 1994.
Messaris, Paul and Michael Pallenik. "Attribution and Inference in the Interpretation of Candid and Staged Film Events." Studies in Visual Communication 4 (Spring 1977): 51-58.
Messaris, Paul and Larry Gross. "Interpretations of a Photographic Narrative by Viewers in Four Age Groups." Studies in Visual Communication 4 (Winter 1977): 99-111.
Moriarty, Sandra. "Abduction and a Theory of Visual Interpretation,"Communication Theory, forthcoming.
Pettersson, Rune. "Intended and Perceived Image content." In L.W. Miller (Ed.) Creating Meaning. Pomona: :International Visual Literacy, 1985).
Pettersson, Rune. "Interpretation of Image Content." In R.A. Braden, B. Braden, D.G. Beauchamp. and L. Miller (Eds.) Visual Literacy in Life and Learning. (Blacksburg, VA: International Visual Literacy Association, 1988).
Ruby, Jay. "In a Pic's Eye: Interpretative Strategies for Deriving Significance and Meaning from Photographs." Afterimage (March 1976): 5-7.
Russell, Anne L. "Viewers' Contributions to a Photograph." In Darrel G. Beauchamp, Roberts A. Braden, Judy Clark Baca (Eds.) Visual Literacy in the Digital Age .(Blacksburg, VA: The International Visual Literacy Association, Inc., 1994).
Ullman, S. The Interpretation of Visual Motions. (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1980).
Gibson, James J. "The Information Available in Pictures, Leonardo 4 (Winter 1971): 27-35.
Friedman, Alinda and L. E. Bourne Jr.. "Encoding the Levels of Information in Pictures and Words." Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 105 (1976): 169-190.
Kosslyn, Stephen M. "Information Representation in Visual Images." Cognitive Psychology. 7 (1975): 341-370
Lee, D. N. "Visual Information During Locomotion." In R. B. MacLeod and H.L. Pick (Eds.). Perception: Essays in Honor of James J. Gibson. (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1974).
Loftus, G. R. and S. M. Bell. "Two Types of Information in Picture Memory." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory. 1 (1975): 103-113.
Barbatsis, Gretchen and Keith Kenney. "Pictorial Language: Meaning in Form" International Communication Association Conference, Chicago, 1986.
Barbatsis, Gretchen. "Pictorial Language Structure: Theoretical Framework and Description." Speech Communication Association Conference. Washington D.C., November, 1983.
Barbatsis, Gretchen and Lori S. Owen. "Pictorial Language: Explorations of a Universal or Culturally Bound Code." Speech Communication Association, Boston, November, 1987.
Bayer, Jonathan. "In Search of a Photographic Language." Artscribe. (July 1977): 23-30.
Debes, John L. "Some Aspects of the Reading of Visual Languages." National Conference on Visual Literacy, Cincinnati, OH, 1972.
Hennis, R.S. "Needed: Research in the Visual Language." English Journal. 70:1 (1981): 79-82.
Kaha, C. W. "Toward a Syntax of Motion." Critical Studies in Mass Communication. 10 (December, 1993): 339-348.
Kepes, Gyorgy. The Language of Vision, (New York: George Brazille, 1944).
Kepes, Gyorgy. (Ed.) Education of Vision. (New York: George Braziller, 1965).
Mandler, J. M. and N. S. Johnson. "Some of the Thousand Words a Picture is Worth." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory. 2 (1976): 529-540.
Metallinos, Nikos. "The Syntax of Moving Images: Principles and Applications." In Darrell G. Beauchamp, Roberts A. Braden, Robert E. Griffin. (Eds.) Imagery and Visual Literacy. (Blacksburg, VA: International Visual Literacy Association, 1995).
Mitchell, W. J. T. (Ed.) The Languages of Images. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980).
Moriarty, Sandra. "Visual Communication as a Primary System." Journal of Visual Communication, forthcoming.
Muffoletto, Robert. "The Reading of Pictures: A consideration for Developing a Critical Model." In R.A. Braden and A.D. Walker (Eds.). Television and Visual Literacy. (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University, 1982).
Pettersson, Rune. "Picture Legibility, Readability, and Reading Value." In A.D. Walker, R.A. Braden, and L.H. Dunker (Eds.). Visual Literacy: Enhancing Human Potential. (Blacksburg, VA: The International Visual Literacy Association, 1984).
Pettersson, Rune. "Verbal/Visual Literacies: Their Languaging Relationships." Reading Psychology: An International Quarterly 9:4 (1988): 295-314.
Searle, Leroy. "Language Theory and Photographic Praxis." Afterimage. (Summer 1979): 26-34.
Stewig, J.W. "Reading Pictures." Journal of Visual Literacy. 9:1 (1989): 70-82.
Sucy, James. "Why Do visual Literacy Projects Fail?" In N.J. Thayer and S. Clayton-Randolph (Eds.). Visual Literacy: Cruising into the Future. (Bloomington, IN: International Visual Literacy Association, 1985).
Szlichcinski, K. P. "The Syntax of Pictorial Illustrations." In P.A. Kolers, M. F. Wrolstad, and H. Bouma. (Eds.) Processing of Visible Language: Vol. 2 (New York: Plenum Press, 1980): 113-124.
Tiemens, Robert K. and S. R. Acker. "Image Size as an Element of Visual Language." Speech Communication Association, Washington, D.C., 1976.
Tiemens, Robert K. and R. K. Avery. "The Syntax of Visual Messages: An Empirical Investigation of the Asymmetry of the Frame Theory." Speech Communication Association Conference, Washington, D.C., 1975.)
Turbayne, C.M. "The Syntax of Visual Language." In C.M. Williams and J.L. Debes (Eds.) Proceedings of the First National Conference on Visual Literacy. (New York,: Pitman Publishing, 1970).
Wendt, P. R. "The Language of Pictures," In S.I. Hayakawa (Ed.), The Use and Misuse of Language, (Greenwich CN: Fawcett, 1962): 175-193..
II E1. Visual / Verbal Comparisons
Anderson, R. E. "Short-term Retention of the Where and When of Pictures and Words." Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 105 (1976): 378-402.
Anglin, G.J. "Prose-relevant Pictures and Older Learners' Recall of Written Prose." Educational Communication and Technology Journal. 34 (2): 131-136.
Anglin, G.J. "Effect of Pictures on Recall of Written Prose: How Durable are Picture Effects?" Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 35 (19): 25-30.
Braden, Roberts A. "Examining Visual Verbal Relationships." In Roberts Braden, Judy Clark Baca, Darrell Beauchamp (Eds.) Art , Science and Visual Literacy. (Blacksburg, VA: The International Visual Literacy Association, Inc., 1993).
Braden, Roberts A. "Visualizing the Verbal and Verbalizing the Visual." In R.A. Braden and A.D. Walker (Eds.), Seeing Ourselves: Visualization in a Social Context. (Blacksburg, VA: The International Visual Literacy Association, Inc., 1983).
Childers, Terry L., Susan E. Heckler and Michael J. Houston. "Memory for the Visual and Verbal Components of Print Advertisements." Psychology and Marketing, 3 (Spring, 1986): 137-150.
Constantine, Mildred. (Ed.) Text by Alan M. Fern. Word and Image. (New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1968).
Corcoran, F. "Processing Information from Screen Media: A Psycholinguistic Approach." Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 29 (2): 117-128.
Culbertson, Hugh M. "Words vs. Pictures: Perceived Impact and Connotative Meaning," Journalism Quarterly, 51 (Summer 1974), 226-237.
Davies, Duncan, Diana Bathurst and Robin Bathurst. The Telling Image: The Changing Balance Between Pictures and Words in a Technological Age. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990).
Dewhurst, S. A. and M. A. Conway. "Pictures, Images, and Recollective Experience." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 10:5 (1994): 1088-1098.
Durso, F.T. and J. K. Johnson. "Facilitation in Naming and Categorizing Repeated Pictures and Words." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory. 5:5 (1979): 449-459.
Dwyer, F.M. "Examining the Symbiotic Relationship Between Verbal and Visual Literacy in Terms of Facilitating Student Achievement." Reading Psychology 9 (1988): 365-380.
Gehring, R. E., M.P. Toglia and G. A. Kimble. "Recognition Memory for Words and Pictures at Short and Long Retention Intervals." Memory and Cognition. 4 (1976): 256-260.
Geisser, Maura J. "Logical Reasoning: With Pictures...Not Without Words," In Judy Clark Baca, Darrell G. Beauchamp, and Roberts A. Braden, Visual Communication: Bridging Across Cultures, IVLA Conference Proceedings, 1991: 173-182.
Gentner, D. and E. F. Loftus. "Integration of Verbal and Visual Information As Evidenced by Distortions in Picture Memory." American Journal of Psychology. 92 (1979). 363-375.
Guenther, R. K. "Conceptual Memory for Pictures and Prose Episodes." Memory and Cognition. 1980 (8): 563-572.
Heckler, Susan E. and Terry L. Childers. "The Role of Expectancy and Relevancy in Memory for Verbal and Visual Information: What is Incongruency?" Journal of Consumer Research. 18 (March, 1992): 475-492.
Hobbs, R. "Visual-Verbal Synchrony and Television News: Decreasing the Knowledge Gap." Journal of Visual/Verbal Languaging. 7:2 (1987): 6-20.
Intraub, H. "The Role of Implicit Naming in Pictorial Encoding." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory. 5 (1979): 78-87.
Kolers, P. A. and S. J. Brison. "Commentary: On Pictures, Words, and Their Mental Representation." Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior. 23 (1984): 105-113.
Kunen, S. and E. M. Duncan. "Do Verbal Descriptions Facilitate Visual Inferences?" Journal of Educational Research. 76 (1983): 370-373.
Loftus, E. F., D. G. Miller and H. J. Burns. "Semantic Integration of Verbal Information Into a Visual Memory." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory. 4 (1978): 19-31.
Lupton, Ellen . "Reading Isotype." In Victor Margolin, (Ed.) Design Discouse: History, Theory, Criticism. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989):145-156.
Lutz, W. J. and C. J. Scheirer. "Coding Processes for Pictures and Words." Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior. 13 (1974): 316-320.
Mandler, J. M and N. S. Johnson. "Some of the Thousand Words a Picture is Worth." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory. 2 (1976): 529-540.
Mayer, R.E. and J.K. Gallini. "When is an Illustration Worth Ten Thousand Words?" Journal of Educational Psychology. 82:6 (1990): 715-726.
Nelson, D. L. "Remember Pictures and Words: Appearance, Significance, and Name." In L. S. Cermak and F. I. M. Craik (Eds.) Levels of Processing in Human Memory. (Hillsdale NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1979).
Nelson, D. L. and D. Castano. "Mental Representations for Pictures and Words: Same or Different?" American Journal of Psychology. 97 (1984): 1-15.
Nelson, D. L., V. S. Reed and C. L. McEvoy. "Learning to Order Pictures and Words: A Model of Sensory and Semantic Encoding." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory. 3 (1977): 485-497.
Orwig, G. W. "Effects of Verbal Shadowing on the Recognition of Visually Presented Verbal and Nonverbal Information." Educational Communication and Technology Journal. 27 (1979): 25-30.
Paivio, Allan. "The Relationship Between Verbal and Perceptual Codes. In E. C. Carterette and M. P. Friedman (Eds.) Handbook of Perception Vol. 9: Perceptual Processing. (New York: Academic Press, 1978).
Paivio, Allan. Imagery and Verbal Processes. (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971).
Paivio, Allan and I. Begg. "Concrete-Image and Verbal Memory Codes." Journal of Experimental Psychology. 1969 (80): 279-285.
Paivio, Allan, T. B. Rogers, and P. C. Smythe. "Why are Pictures Easier to Recall than Words?" Psychonomic Science. 1968 (11): 137-138.
Peterson, M. J. and S. H. McGee. "The Effects of Imagery Instructions, Imagery Ratings, and the Number of Dictionary Meanings Upon Recognition and Recall." Journal of Experimental Psychology. 1974 (102): 1007-1014.
Pettersson, Rune. "Image-Word-Image." In R.A. Braden, D.G. Beauchamp, and L.W. Miller (Eds.). Visible and Viable: The Role of Images in Instruction and Communication. (Commerce, TX: The International Visual Literacy Association, 1987); also in Journal of Visual Verbal Languaging. 6:2 (Fall, 1986): 7-21..
Pettersson, Rune. "Interplay of Visuals and Legends." Visual Literacy Newsletter. 14:5 (1985): 1-3.
Pryluck, Calvin B. "The Film Metaphor: The Use of Language Based Models in Film Study." Literature/film Quarterly. 3 (1975): 117-123.
Pullen, Terri G. "East Moves West: Questioning the Verbal Supremacy of Traditional Literary Studies: The Visual/Verbal Interaction in Salman Rushdie's The Satanic Verses." In Judy Clark Baca, Darrel G. Beauchamp and Roberts A. Braden (Eds). Visual Communication: Bridging Across Cultures. IVLA Conference Proceedings, 1991: 503-508.
Quine, W. V. O. Word and Object. (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1960).
Smith, M. C., and L. E. Magee. "Tracing the Time Course of Picture-Word Processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 109 (1980): 373-392.
Smith, Ruth Ann, Michael J. Houston, and Terry L. Childers. "Verbal versus Visual Processing Modes: An Empirical Test of the Cyclical Processing Hypothesis." In Thomas Kinnear (Ed.) Advances in Consumer Research. Vol. 11. (Ann Arbor MI: Association for Consumer Research, 1984): 75-80.
Smith, S. L. "Exploring Compatibility with Words and Pictures." Human Factors. 23 (1981): 305-315.
Snodgrass, J. G. "Towards a Model for Picture and Word Processing. In P. A. Kolers, M. R. Wrolstad, and H. Bouma. (Eds.) Processing of Visible Language: Vol. 2. (New York: Plenum Press, 1980).
Snodgrass, J. G. "Towards a Model for Picture and Word Processing." In Kolers, M., F. Wrolstad, and H. Bouma (Eds.) Processing of Visible Language: Vol. 2. (New York: Plenum Press, 1980): 565-584.
Standing, L. and P. Smith. "Verbal-Pictorial Transformations in Recognition Memory. Canadian Journal of Psychology. 29 (1975): 316-356.
Willows, D.M. "A Picture is Not Always Worth a Thousand Words: Pictures as Distractors in Reading." Journal of Educational Psychology. 70 (1978): 155-162.
Wiseman S., C. M. MacLeod and P. J. Lootsteen. "Picture Recognition Improves with Subsequent Verbal Information." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 11 (1974): 675-681.
II E2. Pictorial Superiority Effect
Childers, Terry L. and Michael J. Houston. "Conditions for a Picture Superiority Effect on Consumer Memory." Journal of Consumer Research. 11 (September, 1984): 552-563.
Intraub, H. and S. Nicklos. "Levels of Processing and Picture Memory: The Physical Superiority Effect." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 11 (1985): 284-298.
Kobayashi, S. "Theoretical Issues Concerning Superiority of Pictures Over Words and Sentences in Memory." Perceptual and Motor Skills. 63 (1986): 783-792.
Nelson, Douglas L. V. S. Reed, and J.R. Walling. "Pictorial Superiority Effect." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory. 2 (1976): 523-528.
Paivio, Allan and A. K. Csapo. "Picture Superiority in Free Recall: Imagery or Dual Coding?" Cognitive Psychology. 1973 (5): 176-206.
II E3. Visual / Verbal / Audio Interaction
Begg, I. "Imagery and Integration in the Recall of Words." Canadian Journal of Psychology. 1973 (27): 159-167.
Benson, Philippa Jane. "Problems in Picturing Text." In Roberts Braden, Judy Clark Baca, Darrell Beauchamp (Eds.) Art , Science. and Visual Literacy (Blacksburg, VA: The International Visual Literacy Association, Inc., 1993)
Bosley, Rhody. "Radio Study Tells Imagery Potential." Advertising Age, September 6, 1992: R3.
Bryce, Wendy J. and Richard Yalch, "Hearing Versus Seeing: A Comparison of Consumer Learning of Spoken and Pictorial Information in Television Advertising." Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising. 15: 1 (spring, 1993): 1-20.
Crigler, A. N., M. Just and W.R. Neuman. "Interpreting Visual Versus Audio Messages in Television News." Journal of Communication. 44 (1994): 132-149.
Ferrington, Gary. "Audio Design: Creating Multi-Sensory Images for the Mind.: Journal of Visual Literacy. 14:1 (Spring, 1994): 61-67.
Lang, Annie. "Defining Audio/Visual Redundancy from a Limited Capacity Information Processing Perspective." Communication Research. 22:1 (February 1994): 86-115.
Linton, James, J. Schemelefske and W. Liffy. "Dominance and Compatibility in Musical-Visual Combinations in Video Communication." Canadian Communication Association Conference, Montreal Quebec, 1980.
Pettersson, Rune. "The Use of Visuals in Oral Presentations. Educational Technology Research and Development. 40:2 (1992): 109-116.
Segal, S. J., and V. Fusella. 'Influence of Imaged Pictures and Sounds on Detection of Visual and Auditory Signals." Journal of Experimental Psychology. 83 (1970): 458-464.
Weber, R. J. and R. Harnish. "Visual Imagery for Words: The Hebb Test." Journal of Experimental Psychology. 102 (1974): 409-414.
Willemen, Paul. "Cinematic Discourse: The Problem of Inner Speech." In Stephen Heath, Patricia Miller (Eds.) Cinema and Language. (Frederick MO: University Publishers of America, 1988): 141-167.